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Introduction – As a financial instrument, tax has always been one of the policy support instruments that governments apply to solve problems. The issue of the environment, on the other hand, is a notion that has gained more importance over the past years and governments struggle to create solutions to environmental problems on the global scale. Climate change is one of the most important parts of this issue. Especially in our modern day, as a result of natural disasters, forest fires and landslides, climate change has become a field in which serious political measures should be taken. Although it has become necessary to implement tax as a tool to decrease carbon emissions and to open new fields for works with less carbon emission, the expected/desired results about carbon emissions have not been obtained throughout the world.

Purpose – The aim of this chapter is to examine carbon taxes, which are the tax applied against climate change, and to draw attention to the multiple policy approach in the face of global environmental problems.

Methodology – This chapter, in which qualitative research method is adopted, has descriptive elements. In this context, an evaluation has been put forward in the light of the data obtained from various reports and scientific articles.

Findings – Though tax is indeed considered as an effective political tool among the precautions to be taken, one-dimensional approach might bring along a deadlock in the solution of this problem. In order to improve this approach and the perception towards the environment across society, it is necessary to include other factors that can play an important role in this process such as non-governmental organisations. Consequently, in order to solve the environmental problems which have occurred as a result of human activities, it is essential to minimise the destruction caused by these human activities (although it is not possible to restore it completely). Therefore, a multi-dimensional policy instead of a one-dimensional policy, an environmentally conscious society and state, and cooperation of policy actors on a global scale are basic elements which can play an important role in the solution of the problem.

Oversupplied emission basically will create a global economic downturn, which will lead to the implications for the climate action more broadly. Though the pandemic has test the resilience of carbon initiatives, there is urgency in identifying the carbon tax to strengthen as jurisdiction around the world ambitious in adopting and mitigating the targets as an introductory of the associated policy tools. Based on different situations and disciplines, the carbon tax model is simulated in different ways. The purpose of this study is to compare the available approaches that have been utilised by researchers and to determine the methods that suitable the most. The carbon tax and its influence on the construction sector are being benchmark and discussed as the whole of this document. A bibliometric approach is the method in this study in between the keyword of a carbon tax and the construction industry based on the data available in database of Scopus and Web of Science to foresee the interconnection between the knowledge of understanding and definition. The definition of carbon tax is the Pigovian tax that is designed to reduce the greenhouse gases (GHGs) emitted with aim to act as a green tax and been paid by the industries that emitted GHGs as for the carbon emission reduction agenda. The implementation is parallel to the other government policies and in sync to the sustainable development goals.

The purpose of this paper is to extend game analysis to explore decision-making mechanisms for promoting a specific type of products, low energy consumption for individual one while the total energy consumption is huge due to the high quantity of sales, that is, low for individual and high for total (LIHT) in terms of energy consumption.

Game models are developed to compare decisions of optimal prices for newly developed and environmentally friendly (NDEF) and regular products as well as associated sales quantity, profits, carbon emissions under different governmental policies, along with a case of low energy-intensive broadband terminal products in the Chinese telecommunication industry under the carbon tax and subsidy policies.

For both NDEF and regular products, optimal prices decrease under the subsidy policy while both increase under the tax policy. Manufacturers’ decision of optimal prices is highly relevant with unit carbon tax/subsidy and the consumers’ preference. Both the tax and subsidy policies can improve consumption of NDEF products while the subsidy policy can be more effective at the current initial stage.

This paper provides decision support for manufacturers to promote sustainable consumption of LIHT products. Research ideas on models development and solutions for optimal prices can be applied to other LIHT products.

The results provide insights for governments on how to effectively evaluate and motivate sustainable consumption for LIHT products.

This paper first explores how to motivate sustainable consumption of LIHT products by developing models, examining effectiveness of potential governmental policies as well as associated carbon emissions.

Environmental problems such as CO₂ (Carbon Dioxide) emissions have seriously affected the development of the steel industry, which has urged the industry to adopt a more effective emission reduction policy. This paper aims to analyze the impact of various CO₂ emission reduction policies combinations on the economic benefits and environmental changes of the steel industry and to determine the scope of application.

To compare the impact and applicable implementation conditions, a production decision game model that incorporates these two policies has been constructed. Short-, medium- and long-term constraints are set on the emission reduction indicators and the indicators’ changes under various scenarios are compared.

In the case of a single emission reduction policy, the carbon trading (CT) mechanism is better than the carbon tax mechanism. The mixed carbon trading mechanism is superior to the mixed carbon tax mechanism in terms of total output and subsidies, but worse in terms of overall social welfare, producer surplus and macro losses.

This paper constructs multiple emission reduction and production backgrounds and discusses the impact of the comprehensive implementation of these policies, which is practically absent in previous studies. It is in line with the current industrial policy for stable production and environmental protection and also provides a reference for the formulation of detailed policies in the future.

This study aims to explore how large Australian companies in emission intensive industries perceived the introduction of the Carbon Tax as an approach to carbon emissions regulation and as a tool for accountability. It also investigates the influence of perceptions of the new tax on the internal carbon emissions management practices and the motivations for such actions.

This study draws on transaction cost theory and legitimacy theory to address corporate perceptions, responses and motivations in relation to the Carbon Tax. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 18 senior managers directly responsible for the carbon emissions management of their companies.

The study found that the Carbon Tax, viewed by the high-emitting companies as a heavy financial burden, had a significant influence on moderating organisational legitimacy seeking behaviours. It is evident that the transaction cost issues in the form of the carbon pricing requirement has led to a change of focus to “management” rather than merely reporting to external stakeholders. This influenced companies to change their behaviour with the potential to internalise previous externalities of carbon pollution.

This research highlights that a pricing signal in emissions regulations is essential in conjunction with external pressures to effectively stimulate emissions management actions in companies. It extends our understanding of legitimacy theory by suggesting that a mandatory pricing mechanism as explained by transaction cost economics has the potential to lead to actual changes in corporate behaviour through a focus on management rather than reporting.

The study highlights the important elements of any effective emissions policy designed to encourage strong emissions management actions from companies. Based on the findings of the study, it is evident that the Carbon Tax was a very effective mechanism in driving emission management actions, despite the general perception that any deficiencies associated with such a price mechanism could have a negative effect on the economy.

Climate change is a critical issue for the modern society and this study discussed a short-lived policy tool in the Australian context that had the potential to change corporate behaviour in relation to carbon management.

This study is among the very few studies that have examined the influence of the Carbon Tax on internal emissions management practices of companies, and therefore, provides a unique dataset of corporate responses to the Carbon Tax. Given the short time frame that the Carbon Tax was in operation, the study enhances our understanding of the influence the Carbon Tax had on companies responsible for high greenhouse gas emissions.

In order to reduce logistics transportation costs and respond to low-carbon economy, the purpose of this paper is to study the more practical and common simultaneous pickup and delivery vehicle routing problem, which considers the carbon tax policy. A low-carbon simultaneous pickup and delivery vehicle routing problem model is constructed with the minimum total costs as the objective function.

This study develops a mathematical optimization model with the minimum total costs, including the carbon emissions costs as the objective function. An adaptive genetic hill-climbing algorithm is designed to solve the model.

First, the effectiveness of the algorithm is verified by numerical experiments. Second, the research results prove that carbon tax mechanism can effectively reduce carbon emissions within effective carbon tax interval. Finally, the research results also show that, under the carbon tax mechanism, the effect of vehicle speed on total costs will become more obvious with the increase of carbon tax.

This paper only considers the weight of the cargo, but it does not consider the volume of the cargo.

Few studies focus on environmental issues in the simultaneous pickup and delivery problem. Thus, this paper constructs a green path optimization model, combining the carbon tax mechanism for the problem. This paper further analyzes the impact of carbon tax value on total costs and carbon emission; at the same time, the effect of vehicle speed on total cost is also analyzed.

This paper aims to explore how upstream supply chain companies will control the carbon emissions and price decisions of products when the government implements environmental tax policy on consumers. It provides some suggestions to control carbon emissions for the government and manufacturers.

This study establishes two-echelon Stackelberg game models with and without the implementation of environmental tax policy on consumers in a centralized scenario and a decentralized scenario. Through the comparative analysis of the four models, the optimal emission abatement and pricing strategies are obtained.

This paper concludes that implementing environmental tax policy on consumers within the market’s acceptable range is more beneficial to the retailer and the environment, as well as the overall social welfare, except for the manufacturer. Moreover, consumer’s low-carbon preference always has a broader impact on carbon abatement and corporate profits than environmental tax coefficient. Finally, the side-payment self-executing contract can effectively ensure that the supply chain members make rational decisions spontaneously while achieving a win-win solution of centralized scenario.

This paper first considers how the government’s environmental tax policy on consumers will affect the decision-making of supply chain companies, and proposes an improved side-payment self-enforcing contract to maximize environmental and economic benefits of centralized scenario. In addition, it provides a reference for the government to adopt both the carbon cap policy and the environmental tax policy.

Despite the importance of tax policy in reducing energy consumption and carbon emissions, there is a dearth of research on the environmental impact of indirect taxes. This paper examines the impact of indirect taxes on carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions, with an emphasis on institutional quality.

The study uses the Government Revenue Dataset (2021), comprising 143 countries, dividing into 114 developing and 29 developed countries, during the period between 1996 and 2019. The author adopts panel data techniques, with Driscoll–Kraay standard errors to account for the issue of cross-sectional dependence (CSD).

The results indicate that indirect tax revenues have a negative and significant impact on CO₂ emissions for the total sample. The subsample analysis revealed that while indirect taxes reduce carbon emissions in developing countries, opposed results are reported for developed countries. This finding implies that most of the advanced countries have already reached a high level of taxes, at which carbon emissions increase as indirect tax increases further. Interestingly, the results revealed that institutional quality enhances the role of indirect taxes in mitigating carbon emissions for both developing and developed countries.

To the best of the authors' knowledge, this is the sole study using the newly developed tax data by the United Nations University, World Institute for Development Research (UNU-WIDER) to investigate the impact of indirect taxes on carbon emissions, with an emphasis on institutional quality. The existing literature focuses on specific taxes, like carbon taxes, with no comprehensive research on the link between indirect taxes and carbon emissions.

A carbon tax has been widely discussed and implemented in developed countries to mitigate carbon emissions, but this measure is still quite new in developing countries. Recently, the ambition of Vietnam's government in mitigating emissions has been mentioned in international commitments. To achieve these targets, the government is making efforts to seek and implement mitigation measures in the country. While carbon pricing was introduced in Vietnam, there is no study simulating the effects of a carbon tax in the country. This study simulates the environmental and economic effects of a carbon tax and then proposes appropriate policies in Vietnam.

This study investigates the impact on the Vietnamese economy within the static computable general equilibrium (CGE) framework. Compared with previous models, the proposed model in this paper is a fairly standard CGE approach that tries to picture the economic system of Vietnam. In addition, a carbon tax on output will be modeled in this framework. This carbon tax mechanism is more flexible and direct when a carbon tax is based on direct emissions by industry level and the industry's carbon intensity. The paper decomposes the Vietnamese economy into 18 different production sectors, based on the different emission levels of CO₂. The CGE model makes possible to examine the impact of a carbon tax on the whole economy through all possible channels and to differentiate a separate carbon tax among different production sectors. The impact of a differentiated carbon tax is explored not only at the macroeconomic level but also at each different industrial level. Another feature of this paper is to investigate the impact of reallocation revenue from the carbon tax.

This paper has found that by designing carbon tax scenarios at different carbon prices ($1/tCO2, $5/tCO2, $10/tCO2) with different targeted industries, this study shows that higher carbon prices cause greater damage to GDP and welfare, but also better reductions in emissions. In addition, a carbon tax on the energy sectors results in milder economic and welfare damage but less emission reduction than when levying on all sectors. At the sectoral level, a carbon tax might cause sectoral restruction. Interestingly, the electricity sector is the most affected and also is the main contributor to reducing emissions in Vietnam. Finally, the study also shows that reallocation policies of new revenue from the carbon tax would reduce the economic damage caused by carbon taxes, and in many cases promote GDP and welfare. However, these policies reduce the environmentally positive impact of the carbon tax and even induce an increase in emissions in some cases.

This paper studies the pure impacts of a carbon tax, it also simulates the impact of several recycling policies where the increased tax revenue is incorporated. Thereby, this research supports to design and implement carbon tax policies in Vietnam. This paper also would contribute to the literature an example of the adoption of the carbon tax in a developing country, and it could be a lesson for others with similar conditions. Compared with previous models, the proposed model in this paper is a fairly standard CGE approach that tries to picture the economic system of Vietnam. In addition, a more flexible carbon tax mechanism is proposed to improve adequate coverage of emission resources.

Under the carbon tax policy, the authors examine the operational decisions of the low-carbon supply chain with the triple bottom line.

This paper uses the Stackelberg game theory to obtain the optimal wholesale prices, retail prices, sales quantities and carbon emissions in different cases, and investigates the effect of the carbon tax policy.

This study’s main results are as follows: (1) the optimal retail price of the centralized supply chain is the lowest, while that of the decentralized supply chain where the manufacturer undertakes the carbon emission reduction (CER) responsibility and the corporate social responsibility (CSR) is the highest under certain conditions. (2) The sales quantity when the retailer undertakes the CER responsibility and the CSR is the largest. (3) The supply chain obtains the highest profits when the retailer undertakes the CER responsibility and the CSR. (4) The environmental performance impact decreases with the carbon tax.

The results of this study can provide decision-making suggestions for low-carbon supply chains. Besides, this paper provides implications for the government to promote the low-carbon market.

Most of the existing studies only consider economic responsibility and social responsibility or only consider economic responsibility and environmental responsibility. This paper is the first study that examines the operational decisions of low-carbon supply chains with the triple bottom line under the carbon tax policy.