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This chapter proposes that while pre-pandemic tourism research has generally focussed on broader, destination-marketing concepts, post-pandemic attention should be paid to the psychological formation of tourist destination perceptions through knowing, with key attention to the role of social constructionism and semiotics design in COVID-19 virus-related destination brand marketing messages. There are future implications for management and research proposed.

This article provides a detailed investigation of how Lewis revisited classical and Marxian concepts such as productive/unproductive labor, economic surplus, subsistence wages, reserve army, and capital accumulation in his investigation of economic development. The Lewis 1954 development model is compared to other models advanced at the time by Harrod, Domar, Swan, Kaldor, Solow, von Neumann, Nurkse, Rosenstein-Rodan, Myint, and others. Lewis applied the notion of economic duality to open and closed economies.

The following bibliography focuses mainly on programs which can run on IBM microcomputers and compatibles under the operating system PC DOS/MS DOS, and which can be used in online information and documentation work. They fall into the following categories:

Until after the war of 1914–18 the development of the knowledge of food chemistry lagged behind in this country, but furthermore the utilisation by the medical profession of the knowledge available also lagged behind. This, whilst being deplored, is understandable, for the scope of the training of the members of the medical profession is so extensive that specialised knowledge, until it becomes general knowledge, cannot be incorporated in the scope of their training. One unfortunate aspect of the situation is that members of the medical profession, rightly regarded by the public as their advisers on food matters, have tended, often inadvertently, to mislead on such questions. To illustrate this point I will quote two flagrant instances. In one of the large democracies a trade feud began between the manufacturers of two kinds of baking powders. One of the powders contained aluminium in the form of alum, the other did not. Both financial groups were powerful and employed many scientific advisers, either directly or indirectly. All evidence for and against aluminium was collected and distributed to anyone who showed the slightest interest in the matter. An English physician became impressed by the argument against the use of aluminium for cooking vessels and circulated his opinion widely, giving evidence of many patients he had cured by cutting out the use of aluminium cooking utensils. This was characterised by a writer to the British Medical Journal as an interesting example of “ faith healing.” There is no scientific evidence that the trace of aluminium that may be dissolved from an aluminium saucepan is in any way harmful. Naturally one cannot argue for the few people who have certain idiosyncrasies, and perhaps it has been the fortune of that physician to meet a large proportion of these among his patients. The whole question was discussed in detail some years ago but, although invited, the physician did not attend. A point, not without significance, is that the analytical figures on which the condemnation of aluminium cooking vessels was based, were proved to be wrong. Had they been correct, a stewpan would only last twenty stews before it was all dissolved away! The second example is that of “digestive” teas. Advocates of so‐called digestive teas base their criticism of ordinary teas on the fact that they contain “tannin” which they aver has some extraordinary effect on the stomach lining and on the process of digestion. Naturally the public believe this, and, presumably remembering that the tanning of hides yields a product, leather, they assume that the stomach by analogy becomes tanned; some members of the medical profession also accept the claim of the vendors of the so‐called digestive teas. It is, of course, well known that there is a large group of substances, in many cases with ill‐defined structure, classed as “tannin,” and among these is the tannin from tea which, however, could not be used for the production of leather from hides. Dr. Roche Lynch was very categorical with regard to the absence of clinical evidence at a meeting some little time ago. He stated that he did not believe that post mortem examination had ever revealed any changes of the stomach which could be associated with heavy consumption of tea. The vast majority of these digestive teas have been examined and the point to be specially noted is that the tannin content of these “special” teas is well up to the average of that for ordinary blends of tea, and in certain cases above the average. The Public Analyst for Birmingham has made some scathing comments on “Tanninless” teas. As he said, the inference from the advertisement matter was that the tea would be “more digestible,” would “promote digestion,” or in one case would “cure indigestion.” Other misleading statements are that “Young tips” have been used, but these, in fact, are higher in tannin content than the normal picking of leaves; and that “stalk” has been eliminated, whereas stalk is lower in tannin content than the leaves themselves. It is, of course, well known that sufferers from digestive disorders are very prone to the effect of “suggestion” and one can assume that the clever advertisements have been the cause of the improvement in the patient's condition. The nations most prone to be influenced by considerations of the effect of food eaten on the functions of the body are the Americans and Germans, the former possibly because methods of advertisement have been developed to a higher pitch of efficiency than anywhere else, and the latter because as Hitler has said of the Germans, they are as a nation most gullible. I have mentioned the collection of data in the case of aluminium, and I will deal later with the development of food chemistry as reflected by the amount of published work. There is an ever increasing flow of papers dealing with this aspect of science. During the war of 1914–1918, there was a remarkable falling off of published work, and doubtless we shall experience a similar diminution during the present war, for food chemists, in common with other chemists, are deflected from their ordinary course, urgent practical problems taking precedence over the more fundamental investigations, the results of which are normally published. Our thoughts naturally turn to the general question of the provision of food in war time in this country. We have had that admirable little book “Feeding the People in War Time,” by Orr and Lubbock, just published; we have had lectures, broadcast talks and discussions, but, whilst practical in some senses, the general scope of these discussions has dealt with the subject from a somewhat academic standpoint—certainly not from the angle of the people who have to produce the food. During a period of war the total nutritional value of any food becomes of paramount importance. It is important to remember, however, that the findings of the dietitian have to be translated into factory practice, and until this has been done academic conclusions do not become effective. One cannot commend too highly the idea that there should be certain foods, basic rations, available in large quantities. Orr and Lubbock suggest that these should be: milk, potatoes, oatmeal, vegetables, bread, sugar and either butter or vitaminised margarine. As far as our knowledge goes at present, such a list of basic foods taken in requisite quantities would not only give sufficient calories but those other constituents of food essential to good health. That these should be available to the housewife is apparent, but unless they are relieved by a proportion of the less essential foods, the diet would become deadly dull; many of us remember our experiences in the army in the last war, how spirits flagged when the bare necessities alone were available, and how, moreover, the addition of those little “extras” would raise the morale of the soldier.

The year 1820 was a landmark in the story of adulteration for in that year was published “A Treatise on the Adulteration of Food, and Culinary Poisons, etc., etc.” by Dr. F. Accum. The first edition of 1,000 copies was sold in a month and a second edition was at once printed. The preface to this second edition says that the author had received a number of anonymous communications containing maledictions and menaces. The book says, “it would be difficult to mention a single article of food which is not to be met with in an adulterated state ; and there are some substances which are, scarcely ever to be procured genuine.” He records that butchers meat and fish were blown by means of a quill or the stem of a tobacco pipe to make the flesh appear firm and glistening. The water used in London came from the Thames which received all the contents of the sewers, drains and water‐courses. He says that no water becomes putrid sooner than that of the Thames, smelling of carburetted and sulphuretted hydrogen gases. Sawdust was used for increasing the stringency of wine and this was supplied by wholesalers to the brewers' druggist as an ordinary article of commerce. Old and stale beer which had gone acid was converted to mild by using oyster shells to neutralise the acid. He states that the detection of adulteration of beer with deleterious vegetable substances is beyond the scope of chemical science ; but within about 20 years methods were available for them. Most lozenges were kept in two grades, the cheaper at half the price being “reduced,” as it was called, with clay, sugar, pepper or other spices. With regard to wine‐brewers he quotes from “The Tatler” of 1797: “There is in this city a certain fraternity of chemical operators who work in underground holes, caverns and dark retired spots to conceal their mysteries from the eyes and observations of mankind. These subterranean philosophers are daily employed in the transmutation of liquors and of the power of magical drugs and incantations, raising under the streets of London the choicest products of the hills and valleys of France. They can squeeze Bordeaux out of the sloe and draw Champagne from an apple.” He records how bottles were “Crusted,” i.e. the interior of empty wine bottles were lined with a red crust to imitate the deposit from wine ; a factitious product was added and the bottles closed with corks having the lower part dyed a fine red as if they had long been in contact with wine. With regard to tea he records how different varieties of leaves from trees and shrubs were first boiled and then baked on an iron plate. When dry they were coloured and rubbed in the hand to produce a curl resembling that of genuine tea. To obtain a green variety, the leaves were coloured with verdigris. Usually the sloe leaf was used. Accum suggested that the housewife could take her part in detecting false teas and said “Our ladies are our teamakers ; let them study the leaf as well as the liquor ; let them become familiar with both vegetables, with their forms, colours, flavours and scents ; let us drink our tea upon the responsibility of our wives, daughters and sisters, and not upon that of our grocers. Let every female distinguish tea leaves from sloe‐leaves, as well as if she had served an apprenticeship in the warehouse in Leadenhall Street.” The reason for the prevalent adulteration of tea was the heavy revenue duties. Spices were also heavily dutied and expensive, and nearly all were adulterated. The pepper duty was 2s. 6d. a lb. and factitious pepper berries were made from linseed cake, clay and cayenne pepper. Accum wrote several books on food technology and did a lot of useful work by lecturing on adulteration ; but probably his greatest service was drawing attention to the dangers from poisoning by metallic compounds either added as colouring matters or introduced accidentally by the use of unsuitable metal containers. These hazards were generally caused through ignorance. For example in “The Falsification of Food” by Mitchell there is an account of an investigation of poisoning by Gloucester cheese. A man was taken seriously ill at an inn and some observant person noticed that a cat became violently ill after eating the rind of the Gloucester cheese which the man had left. The cheese was examined and found to contain large quantities of lead. The manufacturer of the cheese was unable to account for it as he was certain of the purity of his own materials and had purchased the annatto, with which it was coloured, from a reputable firm. This firm was certain that the annatto supplied consisted solely of genuine annatto, improved in colour with vermilion, a normal practice in the trade. On further enquiry it was found that the druggist who had sold the vermilion had assumed it would only be used as a pigment for house painting and had mixed it with red lead to increase his profit and without any suspicion that harm could come of it. The investigator says “Thus through the circuitous and diversified operations of commerce a portion of deadly poison may find admixture into the necessities of life in a way which can attach no criminality to the parties through whose hands it has successively passed.” Although it has been known for over 2,000 years that lead salts were violent poisons, it was for long assumed that metallic lead was insoluble in water and fruit juices. It was a common practice for proprietors of wells to instruct plumbers to use double the thickness of lead because it was known that the local water corroded the lead very quickly. No one had troubled to wonder what became of the corroded metal. A gentleman had 21 children of whom eight died in early infancy. Both parents and the remaining children were remarkably unhealthy, being particularly subject to stomach disorders. The father became paralytic and the mother was continuously subject to colic. When the parents died the house was sold and the children moved ; they immediately improved in health. The purchaser of the house found it necessary to repair the pump and found it so corroded that the cylinder was perforated in several places and the cistern was reduced in thickness to that of brown paper. Too late the cause of years of trouble was discovered. Accum's treatise aroused attention in scientific circles and several other workers investigated food, among whom may be mentioned Mitchell, Normandy, Chevalier, Garner and Harel. But the general public did not read their scientific books. Shortly afterwards there appeared anonymously a small brochure under a long title but generally referred to as “Death in the Pot.” This was written in popular style, had a large sale and a great influence on the public. The immediate result was a wide circulation of knowledge of adulteration and contamination of food and both were generally condemned. A writer expressed the opinion that the life of man would generally be extended to 100 years were it not for his excesses and the adulteration of his food. As regards adulteration the public could do little to prevent it; but the effects of contaminated food being rapid, the people could complain to the sellers and for their own sakes manufacturers were compelled to scrutinise the materials used and to discard colouring matters and metallic utensils which they knew to be dangerous. It has previously been mentioned that Excise Officers were concerned with adulteration in connexion with articles subject to a revenue duty. Tobacco was a source of considerable revenue and the Excise were ever on the watch against adulteration. An Act of 1840 had prohibited the mixing of tobacco with a number of substances but the effect was to increase adulteration with others. One of the Excise Officers, George Phillips, had in his spare time become proficient in chemistry and in the use of the microscope, and he offered his services to the Commissioners of Excise for the particular purpose of examining tobacco for purity. This was eventually agreed to and in 1842 Phillips was given a room for his purpose. His success was immediate and his activities were soon extended to other excisable materials including a variety of foods. This one man and one room eventually became the Inland Revenue Laboratory, Somerset House, which was subsequently constituted into a separate Department known as the Department of the Government Chemist. Its activities now extend to work for all Government Departments, but the original objects for which it was founded over 100 years ago still form an important part of its work. By 1850 the public had become hygiene‐conscious, largely due to the pioneer work of such men as Chadwick, who had been calling attention to unsound and unhealthy conditions in all forms of sanitary services. In that year the “Lancet” established “The Lancet Sanitary Commission” to institute an extensive series of investigations into the condition of various articles of diet supplied to the people. A leading spirit of the Commission was Dr. Hassall who did much experimental work in the examination of commercial foods sold to the public and reported his findings in the “Lancet.” In 1855 he published “Food and its Adulterations, comprising the reports of the Analytical Sanitary Commission of the Lancet for the years 1851–1854.” Hassall exploited the microscope in the detection of adulteration and recorded many pictures of the microscopic characteristics of vegetable foods and adulterants. Without the more refined methods of today he was able to detect adulteration in a very large proportion of the samples examined. For example:—

A review of the cases in which samples of food have been taken for analysis under Orders made under the Defence Regulations by the Ministry of Food gives rise to great concern, not only amongst the officers of Food and Drugs Authorities but amongst the trades concerned. A Food and Drugs Authority taking samples for analysis under Section 3 of the Food and Drugs Act, 1938, is generally required, should a contravention be shown by the Analyst's report, to take action within 28 days. Thus, in normal cases of contravention, justice is done expeditiously once the resolution of the Local Authority has been obtained. In this way, representative selections of food and drugs averaging three per thousand of the population is obtained throughout the year in accordance with the duties imposed on the Authority. Where, however, the Ministry of Food lay down standards under powers contained in the Defence Regulations, action for contravention of those standards cannot be taken by a Food and Drugs Authority but only by the Ministry. Thus, if milk does not reach the requisite standard of 3 per cent milk fat, a Local Authority can immediately take action, as the standard is fixed by the Food and Drugs Act, but, in the case of Channel Island milk for which the standard of 4 per cent is fixed under the Defence Regulations, Local Authorities are precluded from taking any action as this is the prerogative of the Ministry. In practice this means that, in the case of sausages, a Local Authority can prosecute for what they consider to be a deficiency in meat content without the approval of the Ministry of Food, but they cannot quote the standard laid down by them, except perhaps by submitting to the magistrates that this is the commercial standard. The Bench would then have to consider whether they should accept this commercial standard. The position which subsequently often occurs is that, whilst a set standard exists, only the Ministry can quote it. Any Local Authority so doing under Section 3 is likely to have its case dismissed. The Divisional Court case of Thomas Robinson & Sons Ltd. versus Allardice, 1944, illustrates this point. In that case, proceedings had been brought under Section 3 of the Food and Drugs Act, 1938, for the sale of food not of the nature or not of the substance or not of the quality demanded by the purchaser, in that it did not consist of a particular product defined by an Order made under the Defence Regulations 55. In this case Lawrence J said: “We find reliance, placed upon an alleged breach of the Starch Food Powders (Control) Order, 1941. That has nothing whatever to do with the Food and Drugs Act, and may well have been sumptuary legislation for the conservation of wheat; therefore it is obvious that the justices on their own showing took into consideration something irrelevant.” In consequence, it would appear that the object of the Order must be considered before deciding that it is within the scope of a Food and Drugs Authority's duty to proceed for a breach thereof. It seems that, where a temporary standard has been fixed to meet a crisis or a seasonal situation, the Local Authority has no power to rely upon such a standard when prosecuting under Section 3 of the Food and Drugs Act. Presumably, therefore, failure to comply with the standards laid down in these Orders and Regulations cannot be made the subject of a prosecution by a Food and Drugs Authority under Section 3. It is difficult to justify this complexity of procedure. In a recent case, sausages were found to be deficient in meat, the analysis revealing that 36 per cent meat was present instead of the minimum 50 per cent. A striking feature of this case, however, was the long delay before the case reached the Courts. The Chairman of the Bench stated that he felt the Ministry of Food should have brought the case before the Court sooner, since some five months had elapsed since the offence had been discovered. As the Defence pointed out, if the Ministry of Food attached such importance to the case, why was there some five months delay between the results of the tests on the sausages being received and the case being brought into Court. The time limit under the Food and Drugs Act, 1938, does not apply to procedure under these Regulations.—Recently, a Sampling Officer of a Local Authority purchased some sausages and the Analyst's report revealed a considerable difference between the meat content and the standard laid down under the Regulations. The facts were reported to the Ministry in case they wished to take action. Several weeks later, without any notification to the Food and Drugs Authority, an Enforcement Officer of the Ministry of Food, who had not previously been concerned with the case, called at the shop, informing the butcher of the offence and questioning him as to his action and methods. Both Food and Drugs Sampling Officers and members of the trade will appreciate the exasperation that follows such a visit. After approximately nine weeks from the sample being taken, the tradesman in question was still unaware of the action proposed by the Ministry. Such delay, with the power and resources that the Ministry of Food have at their disposal, is most difficult to justify. It creates a great deal of friction between the trade and the Sampling Officer and brings yet another official into the picture, the necessity for whose presence it is very difficult to understand. Apart from the unnecessary overlapping of the samples that may be taken, the visits of two officers possibly to the same premises for the same purpose does entail a wa§{e of manpower and causes much irritation. Is it not time that Food and Drugs Authorities on whom the onus rests for 99 per cent of sampling of food and drugs were permitted by statute to prosecute for contravention of standards laid down under the Defence Regulations?

From earliest times the land and all it produced to feed and sustain those who dwelt on it was mankind's greatest asset. From the Biblical “land of milk and honey”, down through history to the “country of farmers” visualised by the American colonists when they severed the links with the mother country, those who had all their needs met by the land were blessed — they still are! The inevitable change brought about by the fast‐growing populations caused them to turn to industry; Britain introduced the “machine age” to the world; the USA the concept of mass production — and the troubles and problems of man increased to the present chaos of to‐day. There remained areas which depended on an agri‐economy — the granary countries, as the vast open spaces of pre‐War Russia; now the great plains of North America, to supply grain for the bread of the peoples of the dense industrial conurbations, which no longer produced anything like enough to feed themselves.

UNTIL 1952 Queen's University was fortunate to have one main library building. With the establishment of the Institute of Clinical Science in the hospital area 1½ miles from the main university site, the formation of a separate medical library near the hospitals was considered essential.